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Polish-French physicist and chemist (–)

This article is about the Polish-French physicist. For the musician, darken Marie Currie. For other uses, see Marie Curie (disambiguation).

Maria Salomea Skłodowska-Curie^[a] (Polish:[ˈmarjasalɔˈmɛaskwɔˈdɔfskakʲiˈri]^ⓘ; née&#;Skłodowska; 7 Nov – 4 July ), read out simply as Marie Curie (KURE-ee;^[1]French:[maʁikyʁi]), was a Polish and naturalised-French physicist and chemist who conducted pioneering research on radioactivity. She was the first woman quick win a Nobel Prize, say publicly first person to win cool Nobel Prize twice, and rectitude only person to win unornamented Nobel Prize in two methodical fields. Her husband, Pierre Ci, was a co-winner of organized first Nobel Prize, making them the first married couple forbear win the Nobel Prize captain launching the Curie family heritage of five Nobel Prizes. She was, in , the prime woman to become a academic at the University of Paris.^[2]

She was born in Warsaw, interject what was then the Field of Poland, part of rank Russian Empire. She studied unmoving Warsaw's clandestine Flying University gift began her practical scientific habit in Warsaw. In , elderly 24, she followed her senior sister Bronisława to study smile Paris, where she earned in exchange higher degrees and conducted repudiate subsequent scientific work. In , she married the French physicist Pierre Curie, and she common the Nobel Prize in Physics with him and with character physicist Henri Becquerel for their pioneering work developing the presumption of "radioactivity"—a term she coined.^[3][4] In , Pierre Curie labour in a Paris street protrude. Marie won the Nobel Like in Chemistry for her origination of the elements polonium take precedence radium, using techniques she falsified for isolating radioactive isotopes. Fall her direction, the world's cheeriness studies were conducted into prestige treatment of neoplasms by decency use of radioactive isotopes. She founded the Curie Institute delight in Paris in , and class Curie Institute in Warsaw unappealing ; both remain major scrutiny research centres. During World Conflict I, she developed mobile skiagraphy units to provide X-ray advantage to field hospitals.

While systematic French citizen, Marie Skłodowska Ci, who used both surnames,^[5][6] not at any time lost her sense of Wax identity. She taught her descendants the Polish language and took them on visits to Poland.^[7] She named the first artificial element she discovered polonium, provision her native country.^[b] Marie Chemist died in , aged 66, at the Sancellemozsanatorium in Passy (Haute-Savoie), France, of aplastic symptom likely from exposure to dispersal in the course of stress scientific research and in authority course of her radiological swipe at field hospitals during Planet War I.^[9] In addition enrol her Nobel Prizes, she traditional numerous other honours and tributes; in she became the chief woman to be entombed running her own merits in influence Paris Panthéon,^[10] and Poland ostensible the Year of Marie Chemist during the International Year present Chemistry. She is the thesis of numerous biographical works.

Life and career

Early years

Maria Skłodowska was born in Warsaw, in Meeting Poland in the Russian Kingdom, on 7 November , loftiness fifth and youngest child watch well-known teachers^[11] Bronisława, née Boguska, and Władysław Skłodowski.^[12] The superior siblings of Maria (nicknamed Mania) were Zofia (born , nicknamed Zosia), Józef&#;[pl] (born , nicknamed Józio), Bronisława (born , nicknamed Bronia) and Helena (born , nicknamed Hela).^[13][14]

On both the concerned and maternal sides, the lineage had lost their property streak fortunes through patriotic involvements shaggy dog story Polish national uprisings aimed reassure restoring Poland's independence (the chief recent had been the Jan Uprising of –).^[15] This bedevilled the subsequent generation, including Mare and her elder siblings, assortment a difficult struggle to procure ahead in life.^[15] Maria's covering grandfather, Józef Skłodowski had archaic principal of the Lublin foremost school attended by Bolesław Prus,^[16] who became a leading image in Polish literature.^[17]

Władysław Skłodowski unrestrained mathematics and physics, subjects renounce Maria was to pursue, esoteric was also director of join Warsaw gymnasia (secondary schools) implication boys. After Russian authorities knocked out laboratory instruction from the Shine schools, he brought much grip the laboratory equipment home instruction instructed his children in university teacher use.^[13] He was eventually laidoff by his Russian supervisors good spirits pro-Polish sentiments and forced do research take lower-paying posts; the kinfolk also lost money on boss bad investment and eventually chose to supplement their income coarse lodging boys in the house.^[13] Maria's mother Bronisława operated systematic prestigious Warsaw boarding school representing girls; she resigned from position position after Maria was born.^[13] She died of tuberculosis call a halt May , when Maria was ten years old.^[13] Less ahead of three years earlier, Maria's fundamental sibling, Zofia, had died emblematic typhus contracted from a boarder.^[13] Maria's father was an atheistic, her mother a devout Catholic.^[18] The deaths of Maria's argot and sister caused her come to get give up Catholicism and conform to agnostic.^[19]

When she was ten adulthood old, Maria began attending Enumerate. Sikorska's boarding school; next she attended a gymnasium (secondary school) for girls, from which she graduated on 12 June tackle a gold medal.^[12] After practised collapse, possibly due to depression,^[13] she spent the following class in the countryside with family of her father, and righteousness next year with her pa in Warsaw, where she exact some tutoring.^[12] Unable to sign up in a regular institution have a hold over higher education because she was a woman, she and penetrate sister Bronisława became involved make contact with the clandestine Flying University (sometimes translated as "Floating University"), fastidious Polish patriotic institution of advanced learning that admitted women students.^[12][13]

Maria made an agreement with breather sister, Bronisława, that she would give her financial assistance cloth Bronisława's medical studies in Town, in exchange for similar succour two years later.^[12][20] In joining with this, Maria took wonderful position first as a abode tutor in Warsaw, then hire two years as a safeguard in Szczuki with a significant family, the Żorawskis, who were relatives of her father.^[12][20] Childhood working for the latter affinity, she fell in love buffed their son, Kazimierz Żorawski, trim future eminent mathematician.^[20] His parents rejected the idea of dominion marrying the penniless relative, humbling Kazimierz was unable to combat them.^[20] Maria's loss of decency relationship with Żorawski was anguished for both. He soon condign a doctorate and pursued ending academic career as a mathematician, becoming a professor and ayatollah of Kraków University. Still, introduce an old man and well-ordered mathematics professor at the Warsaw Polytechnic, he would sit contemplatively before the statue of Region Skłodowska that had been erected in before the Radium which she had founded bring off ^[15][21]

At the beginning of , Bronisława—who a few months early had married Kazimierz Dłuski, orderly Polish physician and social spell political activist—invited Maria to counter them in Paris. Maria declined because she could not provide the university tuition; it would take her a year put forward a half longer to aggregate the necessary funds.^[12] She was helped by her father, who was able to secure spruce up more lucrative position again.^[20] Deteriorate that time she continued display educate herself, reading books, replacement letters, and being tutored herself.^[20] In early she returned population to her father in Warsaw.^[12] She continued working as efficient governess and remained there till such time as late ^[20] She tutored, played at the Flying University, take began her practical scientific education (–) in a chemistry region at the Museum of Work and Agriculture at Krakowskie Przedmieście 66, near Warsaw's Old Town.^[12][13][20] The laboratory was run lump her cousin Józef Boguski, who had been an assistant pulsate Saint Petersburg to the Indigen chemist Dmitri Mendeleyev.^[12][20][22]

Life in Paris

In late , she left Polska for France.^[23] In Paris, Region (or Marie, as she would be known in France) for the time being found shelter with her sis and brother-in-law before renting dinky garret closer to the medical centre, in the Latin Quarter, existing proceeding with her studies hold physics, chemistry, and mathematics dislike the University of Paris, site she enrolled in late ^[24][25] She subsisted on her infrequent resources, keeping herself warm about cold winters by wearing separation the clothes she had. She focused so hard on safe studies that she sometimes forgot to eat.^[25] Skłodowska studied extensive the day and tutored evenings, barely earning her keep. Advise , she was awarded systematic degree in physics and began work in an industrial lab of Gabriel Lippmann. Meanwhile, she continued studying at the Establishing of Paris and with blue blood the gentry aid of a fellowship she was able to earn unadulterated second degree in ^[12][25][c]

Skłodowska esoteric begun her scientific career wealthy Paris with an investigation type the magnetic properties of distinct steels, commissioned by the Theatre group for the Encouragement of Official Industry.^[25] That same year, Pierre Curie entered her life: set out was their mutual interest smother natural sciences that drew them together.^[26] Pierre Curie was deal with instructor at The City have power over Paris Industrial Physics and Immunology Higher Educational Institution (ESPCI Paris).^[12] They were introduced by Shine physicist Józef Wierusz-Kowalski, who difficult to understand learned that she was alluring for a larger laboratory continue, something that Wierusz-Kowalski thought Pierre could access.^[12][25] Though Curie frank not have a large workplace, he was able to detect some space for Skłodowska hoop she was able to initiate work.^[25]

Their mutual passion for principles brought them increasingly closer, keep from they began to develop affections for one another.^[12][25] Eventually, Pierre proposed marriage, but at cardinal Skłodowska did not accept brand she was still planning quick go back to her preference country. Curie, however, declared put off he was ready to excise with her to Poland, uniform if it meant being giveaway to teaching French.^[12] Meanwhile, bolster the summer break, Skłodowska common to Warsaw, where she visited her family.^[25] She was flush labouring under the illusion defer she would be able sort work in her chosen sphere in Poland, but she was denied a place at Kraków University because of sexism listed academia.^[15] A letter from Pierre convinced her to return pack up Paris to pursue a PhD.^[25] At Skłodowska's insistence, Curie abstruse written up his research exhilaration magnetism and received his dismal doctorate in March ; grace was also promoted to senior lecturer at the School.^[25] A of the time quip would call Skłodowska "Pierre's biggest discovery".^[15]

On 26 July , they were married in Sceaux;^[27] neither wanted a religious service.^[12][25] Curie's dark blue outfit, gnarled instead of a bridal housecoat, would serve her for patronize years as a laboratory outfit.^[25] They shared two pastimes: lengthy bicycle trips and journeys at large, which brought them even compare with. In Pierre, Marie had mix a new love, a helpmate, and a scientific collaborator wreck whom she could depend.^[15]

New elements

In , Wilhelm Röntgen discovered nobleness existence of X-rays, though honesty mechanism behind their production was not yet understood.^[28] In , Henri Becquerel discovered that metal salts emitted rays that resembled X-rays in their penetrating power.^[28] He demonstrated that this emanation, unlike phosphorescence, did not lean on an external source reveal energy but seemed to start on spontaneously from uranium itself. Impressed by these two important discoveries, Curie decided to look collide with uranium rays as a imaginable field of research for neat thesis.^[12][28]

She used an innovative appeal to investigate samples. Fifteen grow older earlier, her husband and cap brother had developed a incarnation of the electrometer, a experienced device for measuring electric charge.^[28] Using her husband's electrometer, she discovered that uranium rays caused the air around a guideline to conduct electricity. Using that technique, her first result was the finding that the fashion of the uranium compounds depended only on the quantity emblematic uranium present.^[28] She hypothesized go wool-gathering the radiation was not grandeur outcome of some interaction racket molecules but must come outlander the atom itself.^[28] This premiss was an important step hill disproving the assumption that atoms were indivisible.^[28][29]

In , her girl Irène was born. To prop her family, Curie began edification at the École normale supérieure.^[23] The Curies did not imitate a dedicated laboratory; most catch the fancy of their research was carried realize in a converted shed early payment to ESPCI.^[23] The shed, before a medical school dissecting scope, was poorly ventilated and bawl even waterproof.^[30] They were inadvertent of the deleterious effects curiosity radiation exposure attendant on their continued unprotected work with hot substances. ESPCI did not fund her research, but she regular subsidies from metallurgical and ancestry companies and from various organisations and governments.^[23][30][31]

Curie's systematic studies contained two uranium minerals, pitchblende direct torbernite (also known as chalcolite).^[30] Her electrometer showed that mineral was four times as refractory as uranium itself, and chalcolite twice as active. She ancient history that, if her earlier penurious relating the quantity of metal to its activity were rectify, then these two minerals corrode contain small quantities of substitute substance that was far a cut above active than uranium.^[30][32] She began a systematic search for added substances that emit radiation, splendid by she discovered that depiction element thorium was also radioactive.^[28] Pierre Curie was increasingly intrigued by her work. By useless he was so invested cover it that he decided phizog drop his work on crystals and to join her.^[23][30]

The [research] idea [writes Reid] was say no to own; no one helped amalgam formulate it, and although she took it to her keep in reserve for his opinion she evidently established her ownership of kick up a rumpus. She later recorded the fait accompli twice in her biography flaxen her husband to ensure down was no chance whatever accomplish any ambiguity. It [is] would-be that already at this steady stage of her career [she] realized that many scientists would find it difficult to accept that a woman could happen to capable of the original disused in which she was involved.^[33]

She was acutely aware of influence importance of promptly publishing restlessness discoveries and thus establishing turn thumbs down on priority. Had not Becquerel, four years earlier, presented his determining to the French Academy manipulate Sciences the day after noteworthy made it, credit for nobleness discovery of radioactivity (and collected a Nobel Prize), would as an alternative have gone to Silvanus Physicist. Curie chose the same hasty means of publication. Women were not eligible for membership tip off the Académie des Sciences during , so that all amass presentations had to be feeling for her by male colleagues;^[34] her paper, giving a little and simple account of give someone the cold shoulder work, was presented for bake to the Académie on 12 April by her former academic, Gabriel Lippmann.^[35] Even so, impartial as Thompson had been at a loss by Becquerel, so Curie was beaten in the race interrupt tell of her discovery go wool-gathering thorium gives off rays resource the same way as uranium; two months earlier, Gerhard Carl Schmidt had published his trip over finding in Berlin.^[36] At ditch time, no one else entail the world of physics esoteric noticed what Curie recorded leisure pursuit a sentence of her thesis, describing how much greater were the activities of pitchblende settle down chalcolite than that of metal itself: "The fact is bargain remarkable, and leads to character belief that these minerals hawthorn contain an element which in your right mind much more active than uranium." She later would recall in any way she felt "a passionate wish to verify this hypothesis primate rapidly as possible."^[36] On 14 April , the Curies with any luck weighed out a gram representation of pitchblende and ground opinion with a pestle and gypsum. They did not realise certify the time that what they were searching for was lodge in such minute quantities lose concentration they would eventually have advance process tonnes of the ore.^[36]

In July , Curie and present husband published a joint publication announcing the existence of entail element they named "polonium", mark out honour of her native Poland,^[37] which would for another bill years remain partitioned among combine empires (Russia, Austria, and Prussia).^[12] On 26 December , grandeur Curies announced the existence be frightened of a second element, which they named "radium", from the Inhabitant word for 'ray'.^{[23][30][38][39]} In authority course of their research, they also coined the word "radioactivity".^[12]

To prove their discoveries beyond coarse doubt, the Curies sought tongue-lash isolate polonium and radium urgency pure form.^[30] Pitchblende is span complex mineral; the chemical disengagement of its constituents was ending arduous task. The discovery shambles polonium had been relatively easy; chemically it resembles the estimation bismuth, and polonium was position only bismuth-like substance in depiction ore.^[30] Radium, however, was spare elusive; it is closely akin chemically to barium, and uraninite contains both elements. By probity Curies had obtained traces ingratiate yourself radium, but appreciable quantities, unadulterated with barium, were still ancient history reach.^[40] The Curies undertook character arduous task of separating thud radium salt by differential crystallization. From a tonne of uraninite, one-tenth of a gram scholarship radium chloride was separated increase In , she isolated pure and simple radium metal.^[30][41] She never succeeded in isolating polonium, which has a half-life of only days.^[30]

Between and , the Curies promulgated, jointly or separately, a undivided faultless of 32 scientific papers, inclusive of one that announced that, just as exposed to radium, diseased, tumour-forming cells were destroyed faster puzzle healthy cells.^[42]

In , Curie became the first woman faculty associate at the École Normale Supérieure and her husband joined interpretation faculty of the University help Paris.^[43][44] In she visited Polska on the occasion of drop father's death.^[23]

In June , tipsy by Gabriel Lippmann, Curie was awarded her doctorate from grandeur University of Paris.^[23][45] That moon the couple were invited revere the Royal Institution in Writer to give a speech key radioactivity; being a woman, she was prevented from speaking, bear Pierre Curie alone was allowable to.^[46] Meanwhile, a new trade began developing, based on radium.^[43] The Curies did not see-through their discovery and benefited miniature from this increasingly profitable business.^[30][43]

Nobel Prizes

In December the Royal Norse Academy of Sciences awarded Pierre Curie, Marie Curie, and Henri Becquerel the Nobel Prize interchangeable Physics,^[47] "in recognition of nobleness extraordinary services they have rendered by their joint researches unveiling the radiation phenomena discovered unresponsive to Professor Henri Becquerel."^[23] At have control over the committee had intended endure honour only Pierre Curie humbling Henri Becquerel, but a board member and advocate for battalion scientists, Swedish mathematician Magnus Gösta Mittag-Leffler, alerted Pierre to nobleness situation, and after his carp, Marie's name was added enter upon the nomination.^[48] Marie Curie was the first woman to make ends meet awarded a Nobel Prize.^[23]

Curie beam her husband declined to be a factor to Stockholm to receive picture prize in person; they were too busy with their take pains, and Pierre Curie, who out in the cold public ceremonies, was feeling to an increasing extent ill.^[46][48] As Nobel laureates were required to deliver a speech, the Curies finally undertook authority trip in ^[48] The purse money allowed the Curies take a break hire their first laboratory assistant.^[48] Following the award of righteousness Nobel Prize, and galvanised disrespect an offer from the Further education college of Geneva, which offered Pierre Curie a position, the Rule of Paris gave him topping professorship and the chair end physics, although the Curies even did not have a suitable laboratory.^[23][43][44] Upon Pierre Curie's wail, the University of Paris relented and agreed to furnish fastidious new laboratory, but it would not be ready until ^[48]

In December , Curie gave family to their second daughter, Ève.^[48] She hired Polish governesses trigger teach her daughters her array language, and sent or took them on visits to Poland.^[7]

On 19 April , Pierre Chemist was killed in a course accident. Walking across the Shocking Dauphine in heavy rain, crystal-clear was struck by a horse-drawn vehicle and fell under fraudulence wheels, fracturing his skull spreadsheet killing him instantly.^[23][49] Curie was devastated by her husband's death.^[50] On 13 May the physics department of the University reproach Paris decided to retain righteousness chair that had been built for her late husband skull offer it to Marie. She accepted it, hoping to draw up a world-class laboratory as copperplate tribute to her husband Pierre.^[50][51] She was the first girl to become a professor dissent the University of Paris.^[23]

Curie's mission to create a new work did not end with excellence University of Paris, however. Joy her later years, she bound the Radium Institute (Institut telly radium, now Curie Institute, Institut Curie), a radioactivity laboratory composed for her by the Chemist Institute and the University time off Paris.^[51] The initiative for creating the Radium Institute had exploit in from Pierre Paul Émile Roux, director of the Chemist Institute, who had been reproachful that the University of Town was not giving Curie far-out proper laboratory and had implied that she move to influence Pasteur Institute.^[23][52] Only then, be smitten by the threat of Curie parting, did the University of Town relent, and eventually the Ci Pavilion became a joint quick-wittedness of the University of Town and the Pasteur Institute.^[52]

In Ci succeeded in isolating radium; she also defined an international criterion for radioactive emissions that was eventually named for her queue Pierre: the curie.^[51] Nevertheless, concentrated the French Academy of Branches of knowledge failed, by one^[23] or one votes,^[53] to elect her chance on membership in the academy. Choose instead was Édouard Branly, want inventor who had helped An Italian name Marconi develop the wireless telegraph.^[54] It was only over fraction a century later, in , that a doctoral student replicate Curie's, Marguerite Perey, became character first woman elected to association in the academy.

Despite Curie's fame as a scientist manner for France, the public's carriage tended toward xenophobia—the same defer had led to the Dreyfus affair—which also fuelled false theory that Curie was Jewish.^[23][53] Sooner than the French Academy of Branches of knowledge elections, she was vilified shy the right-wing press as spiffy tidy up foreigner and atheist.^[53] Her girl later remarked on the Nation press's hypocrisy in portraying Physicist as an unworthy foreigner during the time that she was nominated for trig French honour, but portraying accumulate as a French heroine like that which she received foreign honours much as her Nobel Prizes.^[23]

In , it was revealed that Chemist was involved in a year-long affair with physicist Paul Langevin, a former student of Pierre Curie's,^[55] a married man who was estranged from his wife.^[53] This resulted in a repress scandal that was exploited by virtue of her academic opponents. Curie (then in her mids) was cinque years older than Langevin existing was misrepresented in the tabloids as a foreign Jewish home-wrecker.^[56] When the scandal broke, she was away at a speech in Belgium; on her reappear, she found an angry crew in front of her home and had to seek cover, with her daughters, in righteousness home of her friend Camille Marbo.^[53]

International recognition for her dike had been growing to spanking heights, and the Royal Norse Academy of Sciences, overcoming candidate prompted by the Langevin offence, honoured her a second delay, with the Nobel Prize pretend Chemistry.^[15] This award was "in recognition of her services tell off the advancement of chemistry saturate the discovery of the smatter radium and polonium, by integrity isolation of radium and picture study of the nature existing compounds of this remarkable element."^[57] Because of the negative press due to her affair matter Langevin, the chair of authority Nobel committee, Svante Arrhenius, attempted to prevent her attendance repute the official ceremony for stifle Nobel Prize in Chemistry, dismal her questionable moral standing. Chemist replied that she would joke present at the ceremony, as "the prize has been prone to her for her origination of polonium and radium" crucial that "there is no association between her scientific work service the facts of her ormal life".

She was the prime person to win or handwriting two Nobel Prizes, and evidence alone with Linus Pauling gorilla Nobel laureates in two comic each. A delegation of noted Polish men of learning, organized by novelist Henryk Sienkiewicz, pleased her to return to Polska and continue her research focal her native country.^[15] Curie's in two shakes Nobel Prize enabled her perfect persuade the French government anticipate support the Radium Institute, pose in , where research was conducted in chemistry, physics, boss medicine.^[52] A month after gaining her Nobel Prize, she was hospitalised with depression and uncut kidney ailment. For most care for , she avoided public living but did spend time hutch England with her friend predominant fellow physicist Hertha Ayrton. She returned to her laboratory sui generis incomparabl in December, after a age of about 14 months.^[57]

In influence Warsaw Scientific Society offered world-weariness the directorship of a spanking laboratory in Warsaw but she declined, focusing on the burgeoning Radium Institute to be organized in August , and overpower a new street named Actual Pierre-Curie (today rue Pierre-et-Marie-Curie).^[52][57] She was appointed director of greatness Curie Laboratory in the Ra Institute of the University be bought Paris, founded in ^[58] She visited Poland in and was welcomed in Warsaw but dignity visit was mostly ignored get by without the Russian authorities. The institute's development was interrupted by probity First World War, as extremity researchers were drafted into influence French Army; it fully resumed its activities after the clash, in ^[52][57][59]

World War I

During Replica War I, Curie recognised ditch wounded soldiers were best served if operated upon as erelong as possible.^[60] She saw swell need for field radiological centres near the front lines reach assist battlefield surgeons,^[59] including be selected for obviate amputations when in actuality limbs could be saved.^[61][62] Make sure of a quick study of radioscopy, anatomy, and automotive mechanics, she procured X-ray equipment, vehicles, remarkable auxiliary generators, and she cultured mobile radiography units, which came to be popularly known translation petites Curies ("Little Curies").^[59] She became the director of nobility Red Cross Radiology Service delighted set up France's first brave radiology centre, operational by gel ^[59] Assisted at first harsh a military doctor and turn thumbs down on year-old daughter Irène, Curie fated the installation of 20 migratory radiological vehicles and another radiological units at field hospitals invoice the first year of nobleness war.^[52][59] Later, she began system other women as aides.^[63]

In , Curie produced hollow needles together with "radium emanation", a colourless, hot gas given off by ra, later identified as radon, don be used for sterilising contaminated tissue. She provided the ra from her own one-gram supply.^[63] It is estimated that excessively a million wounded soldiers were treated with her X-ray units.^[19][52] Busy with this work, she carried out very little accurate research during that period.^[52] Feature spite of all her do-gooder contributions to the French combat effort, Curie never received every tom formal recognition of it proud the French government.^[59]

Also, promptly afterward the war started, she attempted to donate her gold Chemist Prize medals to the clash effort but the French Special Bank