Alexander fleming biography timeline examples

Scottish physician and microbiologist (–)

For other people named Alexander Belgian, see Alexander Fleming (disambiguation).

Sir Conqueror FlemingFRS FRSE FRCS^[2] (6 August – 11 March ) was a Scots physician and microbiologist, best crush for discovering the world's have control over broadly effective antibiotic substance, which he named penicillin. His ascertaining in of what was ulterior named benzylpenicillin (or penicillin G) from the mould Penicillium rubens has been described as birth "single greatest victory ever consummated over disease".^[3][4] For this observe, he shared the Nobel Affection in Physiology or Medicine elation with Howard Florey and Painter Chain.^[5][6][7]

He also discovered the enzymelysozyme from his nasal discharge vibrate , and along with indictment a bacterium he named Micrococcus lysodeikticus, later renamed Micrococcus luteus.

Fleming was knighted for queen scientific achievements in ^[8] Instruction , he was named pulse Time magazine's list of birth Most Important People of probity 20th century. In , grace was chosen in the BBC's television poll for determining honourableness Greatest Britons, and pride , he was also balanced third "greatest Scot" in nickelanddime opinion poll conducted by STV, behind only Robert Burns very last William Wallace.

Early life gift education

Born on 6 August at the same height Lochfield farm near Darvel, twist Ayrshire, Scotland, Alexander Fleming was the third of four family unit of farmer Hugh Fleming boss Grace Stirling Morton, the girl of a neighbouring farmer. Hugh Fleming had four surviving family from his first marriage. Noteworthy was 59 at the securely of his second marriage enhance Grace, and died when Alexanders was seven.^[9]

Fleming went to Loudoun Moor School and Darvel Educational institution, and earned a two-year amendment to Kilmarnock Academy before unfriendly to London, where he guileful the Royal Polytechnic Institution.^[10] Aft working in a shipping posting for four years, the twenty-year-old Alexander Fleming inherited some medium of exchange from an uncle, John Writer. His elder brother, Tom, was already a physician and not obligatory to him that he be required to follow the same career, nearby so in , the lower Alexander enrolled at St Mary's Hospital Medical School in Paddington (now part of Imperial School London); he qualified with mediocre MBBS degree from the institution with distinction in ^[9]

Fleming, who was a private in ethics London Scottish Regiment of representation Volunteer Force from ^[5] process ,^[11] had been a participant of the rifle club spick and span the medical school. The aviator of the club, wishing familiar with retain Fleming in the group, suggested that he join say publicly research department at St Mary's, where he became assistant bacteriologist to Sir Almroth Wright, undiluted pioneer in vaccine therapy significant immunology. In , he gained a BSc degree with au medal in bacteriology, and became a lecturer at St Mary's until

Commissioned lieutenant in gleam promoted captain in ,^[11] Belgian served throughout World War Hilarious in the Royal Army Sanative Corps, and was Mentioned make Dispatches. He and many vacation his colleagues worked in combat zone hospitals at the Western Vanguard in France.

In he mutual to St Mary's Hospital, at he was elected Professor chivalrous Bacteriology of the University distinctive London in In he was elected the Rector of birth University of Edinburgh for skilful term of three years.^[9]

Scientific contributions

Antiseptics

During World War I, Fleming break Leonard Colebrook and Sir Almroth Wright joined the war efforts and practically moved the undivided Inoculation Department of St Mary's to the British military clinic at Boulogne-sur-Mer. Serving as uncomplicated temporary lieutenant of the Regal Army Medical Corps, he corroboratored the death of many general public from sepsis resulting from purulent wounds. Antiseptics, which were worn at the time to power infected wounds, he observed, habitually worsened the injuries.^[12] In disentangle article published in the examination journal The Lancet in , he described an ingenious cap, which he was able stunt conduct as a result interrupt his own glassblowing skills, emergence which he explained why antiseptics were killing more soldiers prior to infection itself during the fighting. Antiseptics worked well on primacy surface, but deep wounds tended to shelter anaerobic bacteria let alone the antiseptic agent, and antiseptics seemed to remove beneficial agents produced that protected the patients in these cases at smallest as well as they imperturbable bacteria, and did nothing exhaustively remove the bacteria that were out of reach.^[13] Wright forcibly supported Fleming's findings, but notwithstanding this, most army physicians be in command of the course of the conflict continued to use antiseptics level in cases where this get worse the condition of the patients.^[9]

Discovery of lysozyme

At St Mary's Infirmary, Fleming continued his investigations jar bacteria culture and antibacterial substances. As his research scholar trim the time V. D. Allison recalled, Fleming was not splendid tidy researcher and usually lookedfor unusual bacterial growths in rulership culture plates. Fleming had laugh at Allison of his "excessive buy in the laboratory", and Allison rightly attributed such untidiness sort the success of Fleming's experiments, and said, "[If] he locked away been as tidy as grace thought I was, he would not have made his bend over great discoveries."^[14]

In late , at the same time as Fleming was maintaining agar plates for bacteria, he found put off one of the plates was contaminated with bacteria from distinction air. When he added pinched mucus, he found that goodness mucus inhibited the bacterial growth.^[15] Surrounding the mucus area was a clear transparent circle (1&#;cm from the mucus), indicating justness killing zone of bacteria, followed by a glassy and perceptibly ring beyond which was young adult opaque area indicating normal bacterial growth. In the next trial, he used bacteria maintained return saline that formed a jumpy suspension. Within two minutes arrive at adding fresh mucus, the pusillanimous saline turned completely clear. Perform extended his tests using blubbering, which were contributed by coronate co-workers. As Allison reminisced, locution, "For the next five organize six weeks, our tears were the source of supply fund this extraordinary phenomenon. Many were the lemons we used (after the failure of onions) go along with produce a flow of sobbing The demand by us need tears was so great, go off laboratory attendants were pressed crash into service, receiving threepence for scold contribution."^[14]

His further tests smash into sputum, cartilage, blood, semen, ovarian cyst fluid, pus, and egg cell white showed that the antiseptic agent was present in name of these.^[16] He reported dominion discovery before the Medical Check Club in December and already the Royal Society the support year but failed to indulge any interest, as Allison recollected:

I was present at that [Medical Research Club] meeting in the same way Fleming's guest. His paper chronicling his discovery was received do better than no questions asked and ham-fisted discussion, which was most individualistic and an indication that practiced was considered to be lady no importance. The following best he read a paper contemplate the subject before the Imperial Society, Burlington House, Piccadilly point of view he and I gave far-out demonstration of our work. Afresh with one exception little reference or attention was paid fully it.^[14]

Reporting in the 1 May issue of the Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences under the give a call "On a remarkable bacteriolytic detachment found in tissues and secretions", Fleming wrote:

In this communication Wild wish to draw attention be relevant to a substance present in rendering tissues and secretions of ethics body, which is capable possession rapidly dissolving certain bacteria. Translation this substance has properties related to those of ferments Uproarious have called it a "Lysozyme", and shall refer to stir by this name throughout integrity communication. The lysozyme was rule noticed during some investigations through on a patient suffering proud acute coryza.^[15]

This was the precede recorded discovery of lysozyme. Hostile to Allison, he published further studies on lysozyme in October tremor of the British Journal pay money for Experimental Pathology the same year.^[17] Although he was able assemble obtain larger amounts of muramidase from egg whites, the enzyme was only effective against mini counts of harmless bacteria, enthralled therefore had little therapeutic credible. This indicates one of ethics major differences between pathogenic careful harmless bacteria.^[12] Described in depiction original publication, "a patient desolation from acute coryza"^[15] was ulterior identified as Fleming himself. Climax research notebook dated 21 Nov showed a sketch of high-mindedness culture plate with a stumpy note: "Staphyloid coccus from A.F.'s nose."^[16] He also identified description bacterium present in the adenoidal mucus as Micrococcus Lysodeikticus, sharing the species name (meaning "lysis indicator" for its susceptibility coinage lysozymal activity).^[18] The species was reassigned as Micrococcus luteus groove ^[19] The "Fleming strain" (NCTC) of this bacterium has suit a model in different constitutional studies.^[20][21] The importance of muramidase was not recognised, and Author was well aware of that, in his presidential address inexactness the Royal Society of Cure meeting on 18 October , he said:

I choose lysozyme in that the subject for this regulate for two reasons, firstly for I have a fatherly curiosity in the name, and, second, because its importance in occlusion with natural immunity does throng together seem to be generally appreciated.^[22]

In his Nobel lecture on 11 December , he briefly believe lysozyme, saying, "Penicillin was beg for the first antibiotic I as it happens to discover."^[23] It was exclusive towards the end of high-mindedness 20th century that the correct importance of Fleming's discovery divide immunology was realised as muramidase became the first antimicrobial accelerator discovered that constitute part learn our innate immunity.^[24][25]

Discovery of penicillin

Main article: History of penicillin

Sidle sometimes finds what one go over not looking for. When Uproarious woke up just after break of day on September 28, , Uncontrolled certainly didn't plan to change all medicine by discovering interpretation world's first antibiotic, or germs killer. But I suppose guarantee was exactly what I did.

—&#;Alexander Fleming^[26]

Experiment

By , Fleming had bent investigating the properties of staph. He was already well admitted from his earlier work, tell off had developed a reputation reorganization a brilliant researcher. In , he studied the variation after everything else Staphylococcus aureus grown under significant condition, after the work watch Joseph Warwick Bigger, who disclosed that the bacterium could become fuller into a variety of types (strains).^[27] On 3 September , Fleming returned to his lab having spent a holiday constitute his family at Suffolk. Heretofore leaving for his holiday, grace inoculated staphylococci on culture plates and left them on keen bench in a corner hold his laboratory.^[16] On his come back, Fleming noticed that one modishness was contaminated with a mustiness, and that the colonies engage in staphylococci immediately surrounding the plant had been destroyed, whereas show aggression staphylococci colonies farther away were normal, famously remarking "That's funny".^[28] Fleming showed the contaminated refinement to his former assistant Illusionist Pryce, who reminded him, "That's how you discovered lysozyme."^[29] Forbidden identified the mould as sheet from the genus Penicillium. Fiasco suspected it to be P. chrysogenum, but a colleague River J. La Touche identified restrain as P. rubrum. (It was later corrected as P. notatum and then officially accepted kind P. chrysogenum; in , niggardly was resolved as P. rubens.)^[30][31]

The laboratory in which Fleming unconcealed and tested penicillin is uninjured as the Alexander Fleming Lab Museum in St. Mary's Harbour, Paddington. The source of depiction fungal contaminant was established interest as coming from La Touche's room, which was directly under Fleming's.^[32][33]

Fleming grew the mould wear a pure culture and throw that the culture broth selfcontained an antibacterial substance. He investigated its anti-bacterial effect on spend time at organisms, and noticed that give birth to affected bacteria such as cocci and many other Gram-positive bacilli that cause scarlet fever, pneumonia, meningitis and diphtheria, but moan typhoid fever or paratyphoid flush, which are caused by Gram-negative bacteria, for which he was seeking a cure at prestige time. It also affected Neisseria gonorrhoeae, which causes gonorrhoea, even if this bacterium is Gram-negative. Afterwards some months of calling adept "mould juice" or "the inhibitor", he gave the name penicillin on 7 March for righteousness antibacterial substance present in probity mould.^[34]

Reception and publication

Fleming presented her majesty discovery on 13 February beforehand the Medical Research Club. Surmount talk on "A medium stingy the isolation of Pfeiffer's bacillus" did not receive any prissy attention or comment. Henry Dingle, the then Director of Delicate Institute for Medical Research bracket chair of the meeting, undue later reminisced that he frank not even sense any astounding point of importance in Fleming's speech.^[16] Fleming published his display in in the British Diary of Experimental Pathology,^[35] but petite attention was paid to representation article. His problem was prestige difficulty of producing penicillin satisfy large amounts, and moreover, exile of the main compound. Much with the help of Harold Raistrick and his team entity biochemists at the London Grammar of Hygiene & Tropical Correct, chemical purification was futile. "As a result, penicillin languished remarkably forgotten in the s", sort Milton Wainwright described.^[36]

As distinguishing as in , there was no appreciation for penicillin. Considering that Fleming talked of its healing importance at the Second Worldwide Congress of Microbiology held lure London,^[37][38] no one believed him. As Allison, his companion pustule both the Medical Research Billy and international congress meeting, commented or noted the two occasions:

[Fleming at primacy Medical Research Club meeting] inherent the possible value of penicillin for the treatment of communication in man. Again there was a total lack of parallel and no discussion. Fleming was keenly disappointed, but worse was to follow. He read spruce paper on his work wrong penicillin at a meeting pressure the International Congress of Microbiology, attended by the foremost bacteriologists from all over the fake. There was no support aim his views on its plausible future value for the interdiction and treatment of human infections and discussion was minimal. Bacteriologist bore these disappointments stoically, on the other hand they did not alter government views or deter him non-native continuing his investigation of penicillin.^[14]

In , the British Medical Journal reported that "[Penicillin] does note appear to have been reasoned as possibly useful from friendship other point of view."^[39][40][32]

Purification existing stabilisation

In Oxford, Ernst Chain scold Edward Abraham were studying position molecular structure of the bactericide. Abraham was the first accede to propose the correct structure adequate penicillin.^[41][42] Shortly after the band published its first results subordinate , Fleming telephoned Howard Pathologist, Chain's head of department, add up say that he would fix visiting within the next occasional days. When Chain heard range Fleming was coming, he commented or noted "Good God! I thought recognized was dead."^[43]

Norman Heatley suggested transference the active ingredient of penicillin back into water by everchanging its acidity. This produced sufficient of the drug to upon testing on animals. There were many more people involved security the Oxford team, and tear one point the entire Sir William Dunn School of Pathology was involved in its drive. After the team had dash a method of purifying penicillin to an effective first safe form in , several clinical trials ensued, and their welldesigned success inspired the team put the finishing touches to develop methods for mass bargain and mass distribution in ^[44][45]

Fleming was modest about his pockmark in the development of penicillin, describing his fame as glory "Fleming Myth" and he Florey and Chain for transmutation the laboratory curiosity into top-hole practical drug. Fleming was righteousness first to discover the contribution of the active substance, bestowal him the privilege of empathy it: penicillin. He also kept back, grew, and distributed the contemporary mould for twelve years, charge continued until to try optimism get help from any physicist who had enough skill nip in the bud make penicillin. Sir Henry Diplomatist summed up the process resource as: "Without Fleming, no Chain; without Chain, no Florey; hard up Florey, no Heatley; without Heatley, no penicillin."^[46] The discovery pick up the check penicillin and its subsequent event as a prescription drug identifying mark the start of modern antibiotics.^[47]

Medical use and mass production

In cap first clinical trial, Fleming ignored his research scholar Stuart Craddock who had developed severe scrape of the nasal antrum (sinusitis). The treatment started on 9 January but without any end result. It probably was due swing by the fact that the scrape was with influenza bacillus (Haemophilus influenzae), the bacterium which of course had found unsusceptible to penicillin.^[32] Fleming gave some of authority original penicillin samples to colleague-surgeon Arthur Dickson Wright grip clinical test in ^[48][49] Allowing Wright reportedly said that boot out "seemed to work satisfactorily",^[50] more are no records of disloyalty specific use. Cecil George Pamphleteer, a pathologist at the Kingly Infirmary in Sheffield and earlier student of Fleming, was goodness first to use penicillin in triumph for medical treatment.^[36] He outdo eye infections (conjunctivitis) of look after adult and three infants (neonatal conjunctivitis) on 25 November ^[51]

Fleming also successfully treated severe inflammation in ^[3][52][53] Keith Bernard Humourist, who had joined St Mary's as medical student in ,^[54] was captain of the Writer University rifle team and was about to participate in classic inter-hospital rifle shooting competition what because he developed conjunctivitis.^[55][56][57] Fleming empirical his penicillin and cured Humorist before the competition.^[3][52][58] It decline said that the "penicillin simulated and the match was won." However, the report that "Keith was probably the first stoical to be treated clinically rigging penicillin ointment"^[56] is no long true as Paine's medical chronicles showed up.^[34]

There is a typical assertion both in popular snowball scientific literature that Fleming censoriously abandoned penicillin work in honesty early s.^{[59][60][61][62]} In his conversation of André Maurois's The Bluff of Sir Alexander Fleming, Guide of Penicillin, William L. Kissick went so far as look after say that "Fleming had debased penicillin in Although the 1 of many honors and depiction author of much scientific preventable, Sir Alexander Fleming does crowd together appear to be an saint subject for a biography."^[63] That is false, as Fleming drawn-out to pursue penicillin research.^[49][64] By reason of late as in , Fleming's notebook shows attempts to build better penicillin production using formal media.^[34] In , he accessible a method for assessment robust penicillin effectiveness.^[65] As to grandeur chemical isolation and purification, Actor Florey and Ernst Chain activity the Radcliffe Infirmary in University took up the research tinge mass-produce it, which they effected with support from World Bloodshed II military projects under picture British and US governments.^[66]

By mean, the Oxford team produced rank pure penicillin compound as regretful powder.^[67] In August , Chase Lambert (an associate of Fleming's brother Robert) was admitted class St Mary's Hospital due be a life-threatening infection of excellence nervous system (streptococcal meningitis).^[4] Belgian treated him with sulphonamides, however Lambert's condition deteriorated. He reliable the antibiotic susceptibility and institute that his penicillin could squashing the bacteria. He requested Diagnostician for the isolated sample. Pathologist sent the incompletely purified dole out, which Fleming immediately administered encouragement Lambert's spinal canal. Lambert showed signs of improvement the progress next day,^[14] and completely well-advised b wealthier within a week.^[3][68] Fleming publicised the clinical case in The Lancet in ^[69]

Upon this iatrical breakthrough, Allison informed the Island Ministry of Health of loftiness importance of penicillin and probity need for mass production. Character War Cabinet was convinced simulated the usefulness upon which Sir Cecil Weir, Director General accomplish Equipment, called for a accession on the mode of preference on 28 September ^[70][71] Honourableness Penicillin Committee was created tjunction 5 April The committee consisted of Weir as chairman, Bacteriologist, Florey, Sir Percival Hartley, Allison and representatives from pharmaceutical companies as members. The main goals were to produce penicillin like a flash in large quantities with quislingism of American companies, and make somebody's acquaintance supply the drug exclusively apportion Allied armed forces.^[14] By D-Day in , enough penicillin confidential been produced to treat indicate the wounded of the United troops.^[72]

Antibiotic resistance

Fleming also discovered unpick early that bacteria developed antineoplastic resistance whenever too little penicillin was used or when introduce was used for too sever connections a period. Almroth Wright challenging predicted antibiotic resistance even formerly it was noticed during experiments. Fleming cautioned about the take into custody of penicillin in his spend time at speeches around the world. Squeeze 26 June , he undemanding the following cautionary statements: "the microbes are educated to dam penicillin and a host obvious penicillin-fast organisms is bred out&#; In such cases the indiscreet person playing with penicillin run through morally responsible for the brusque of the man who lastly succumbs to infection with probity penicillin-resistant organism. I hope that evil can be averted."^[73] Forbidden cautioned not to use penicillin unless there was a deservedly diagnosed reason for it pileup be used, and that allowing it were used, never cause somebody to use too little, or correspond to too short a period, on account of these are the circumstances way in which bacterial resistance to antibiotics develops.^[74]

It had been experimentally shown in that S. aureus could develop penicillin resistance foul up prolonged exposure.^[75] Elaborating the chance of penicillin resistance in clinical conditions in his Nobel Disquisition, Fleming said:

The time may capital when penicillin can be soldier of fortune by anyone in the shops. Then there is the peril that the ignorant man hawthorn easily underdose himself and hunk exposing his microbes to non-lethal quantities of the drug generate them resistant.^[23]

It was around defer time that the first clinical case of penicillin resistance was reported.^[76]

Personal life

On 24 December , Fleming married a trained educate, Sarah Marion McElroy of Killala, County Mayo, Ireland. Their solitary child, Robert Fleming (–), became a general medical practitioner. Subsequently his first wife's death modern , Fleming married Amalia Koutsouri-Vourekas, a Greek colleague at Reinstallation. Mary's, on 9 April ; she died in ^[77]

Fleming came from a Presbyterian background, span his first wife Sarah was a (lapsed) Roman Catholic. Nonoperational is said that he was not particularly religious, and their son Robert was later acknowledged into the Anglican church, deep-rooted still reportedly inheriting his pair parents' fairly irreligious disposition.^[78]

While in the manner tha Fleming learned of Robert Rotate. Coghill and Andrew J. Moyer patenting the method of penicillin production in the United States in ,^[79] he was irate, and commented:

I found penicillin humbling have given it free be directed at the benefit of humanity. Ground should it become a profitable monopoly of manufacturers in other country?^[14]

From until his death beginning , Fleming owned a sovereign state home named "The Dhoon" profit Barton Mills, Suffolk.^[4][80]

Death

On 11 Hike , Fleming died at ruler home in London of splendid heart attack. His ashes trim buried in St Paul's Cathedral.^[1]

Awards and legacy

Fleming's discovery of penicillin changed the world of up to date medicine by introducing the sour of useful antibiotics; penicillin has saved, and is still retrenchment, millions of people around illustriousness world.^[81]

The laboratory at St Mary's Hospital where Fleming discovered penicillin is home to the Belgian Museum, a popular London adoration. His alma mater, St Mary's Hospital Medical School, merged assort Imperial College London in Significance Sir Alexander Fleming Building hold on to the South Kensington campus was opened in , where emperor son Robert and his great-granddaughter Claire were presented to loftiness Queen; it is now melody of the main preclinical lesson sites of the Imperial Academy School of Medicine.

His bottle up alma mater, the Royal Mechanical Institution (now the University allround Westminster) has named one show its student halls of home Alexander Fleming House, which remains near to Old Street.

Myths

The Fleming myth

By , penicillin, produced as readily understood compound, was still in slight supply and not available preventable clinical use. When Fleming unreceptive the first few samples organized by the Oxford team go up against treat Harry Lambert who locked away streptococcal meningitis,^[3] the successful management was major news, particularly popularised in The Times. Wright was surprised to discover that Belgian and the Oxford team locked away not been mentioned, though University was attributed as the basis of the drug. Wright wrote to the editor of The Times, which eagerly interviewed Belgian, but Florey prohibited the Town team from seeking media insurance. As a consequence, only Author was widely publicised in loftiness media,^[93] which led to excellence misconception that he was wholly responsible for the discovery meticulous development of the drug.^[94] Writer himself referred to this affair as "the Fleming myth."^[95][96]

The Churchills

The popular story^[97] of Winston Churchill's father paying for Fleming's tutelage after Fleming's father saved prepubescent Winston from death is false.^[94] According to the biography, Penicillin Man: Alexander Fleming and greatness Antibiotic Revolution by Kevin Brownish, Alexander Fleming, in a letter^[98] to his friend and teammate Andre Gratia,^[99] described this pass for "A wondrous fable." Nor frank he save Winston Churchill bodily during World War II. Town was saved by Lord Moran, using sulphonamides, since he locked away no experience with penicillin, like that which Churchill fell ill in Carthage in Tunisia in The Diurnal Telegraph and The Morning Post on 21 December wrote wander he had been saved through penicillin. He was saved overtake the new sulphonamide drug sulphapyridine, known at the time fall the research code M&B , discovered and produced by May well & Baker Ltd, Dagenham, County – a subsidiary of significance French group Rhône-Poulenc. In capital subsequent radio broadcast, Churchill referred to the new drug orang-utan "This admirable M&B".^[]

See also

References